Uys, P.M. (2000). Towards the Virtual
Class: Key Management Issues in Tertiary Education. Unpublished
PhD thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. Available
online: http://www.globe-online.com/philip.uys/phdthesis
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
In Chapter
two the literature that pertains to this research was discussed to provide
along with Chapter one the context for this research.
In this
Chapter the methodology that was used in this research is outlined.
3.1 Action
Research
The term
action research was coined in the
The purpose
of action research in organizational settings is to develop and discover
aspects of the system’s operation which can lead to improvement and change
(Cunningham, 1993). Elliot (1991) states that the “...fundamental aim of action
research is to improve practice rather than to produce knowledge”. However,
Lewin (1946) clearly indicated that action research can be used to
simultaneously achieve advances in theory
and needed social change. Action
research therefore allows the exploration in two dimensions, that is to say
theory and practice. It explores this intimate relationship between theory and
practice, where the theory influences the practice and the practice changes the
theory.
Chein, Cook
and Jarding (1948), working under Lewin’s guidance, outlined four varieties of
action research:
-
Diagnostic action research: the goal is to diagnose a
problem in need of change, and to seek and find cures which are feasible
-
Participant action research: the participants are
actively involved in the research
-
Empirical action research: the goal is to use
recurring experiences to gradually develop generally valid principles
-
Experimental action research: a variety of techniques
in identical situations are studied in a controlled way to determine their
relative effectiveness.
The action
research process typically occurs as a spiral of sequential research cycles.
This process was initially defined by Lewin (1946) and further developed by
others including Carr and Kemmis (1986) and Zuber- Skerrit (1992).
The spiral
nature of action research is due to each cycle of the research building onto
the previous one. In action research, the maturation of the research is
typically evident in clearer goals within each progressing cycle. In this study
the spiral effect led to more heuristics in regard to managing the
implementation of the virtual class infrastructure in conventional tertiary
education being discovered in each cycle – these are summarised in chapter 8.
At the same time, as this research progressed, more characteristics of virtual
class management emerged, which were consolidated into a new educational
management paradigm for the virtual class called networked educational
management (Chapter 9).
In this
cyclical process it might be that even the problem, variables, hypotheses, and
methods may undergo modification as interim results are validated or
invalidated (Clark: 1976).
There are
typically four interrelated steps or elements within each cycle that do not
necessarily occur sequentially, but can be a continuous process as the four
elements (plan, observe, act and reflect) may occur in parallel.
The action research centered on the implementation of the virtual class
at Wellington Polytechnic as the primary case study.
3.2 Rationale
for Using Action Research
Action
research seems appropriate for this research, as it caters well for dynamic
change, provides research outcomes that have a high degree of relevance, is
pragmatic, and can address complexity of systems well. These aspects are
described below.
The context
and domain of the virtual class is a dynamic one as described in Chapters 1 and
2. It is based on the emergence of a global information or knowledge society
and is, for instance, reflected in the exponential growth of the Internet,
which is one of the central technologies in networked education. For Cunningham
(1993) the traditional approaches in scientific research “...do not seem to
recognize the dynamic nature of organizational problems.”
A high
degree of relevance to current issues in conventional tertiary education was
pursued in this research as it sought to identify what the key management
issues are of implementing the virtual class in conventional tertiary education
in
In Chapter
1 of this study a real-life problem has been identified in terms of the
research construct to discover what the key management issues are when
implementing the virtual class in conventional tertiary education, and in terms
of the two research questions "How does one manage the implementation of the virtual class
infrastructure in conventional tertiary education?" and "How does one manage the operations of the
virtual class?"
The
interplay between conventional tertiary institutes and the virtual class is a
complex and open real-life system owing to the presence of a large number of
factors and management issues (as illustrated in Chapters 8 and 9) in which cause
and effect are not necessarily closely linked. This relates to the notion in
chaos theory that one interaction may have a domino effect of interactions,
which leads to unexpected synergies that disturb the normal cause-effect
relationship. Adding to this complexity is the notion in this research
(discussed in Chapter 1) that a conventional tertiary educational institute and
its management processes can be viewed as having a fractal dimension, that is
to say management processes of the institute, administrative departments,
academic departments, the design and development of the teaching materials, the
actual delivery of the teaching materials that is the "class", and
the students’ management of their own learning. Action research can, as Cunningham
(1993) argues, address this level of complexity through its holistic
disposition since organizational problems are best understood by understanding
the relationship of various activities as they interact.
3.3 Validity
3.3.1 Perspective
Cunningham
(1993) argues that while each operationalization of a construct and perspective
of a researcher provides certain biases, each method, perspective and operation
has a degree of truth associated with it so that an action science would not
rely solely on standards of internal and external validity.
The action
research process within Wellington Polytechnic therefore has a specific degree
of truth associated with it, but these truths had to be evaluated, compared
with, validated and further developed in relation to similar developments in
other conventional tertiary institutes in
The primary
case is the implementation of the virtual class in the Wellington Polytechnic,
New Zealand, and aimed at meeting the criteria of an “...exemplary case study”
(Bridgeman, 1998:42) by being significant, complete, considering alternative
perspectives, displaying sufficient evidence, taking into account feedback from
those involved, and composed in an engaging manner.
3.3.2 Improvement
of practice
Cunningham (1993) also insists that, in
responding to organizational problems, good research is determined by the
degree to which the results are used in improving organizational practices. He
maintains that unless the results of action research positively contribute to
practice, it cannot be said that the action research has been valid. The
implementation of the virtual class at Wellington Polytechnic as illustrated
within the four action research cycles indicates that this study has
contributed to research and teaching at Wellington Polytechnic. At the end of
the research period, however, a critical mass of those involved in networked
education has not yet been reached.
3.3.3 Internal
validity
Internal
validity in general relates to the use of an experimental group and control
group to establish correct causal relationships. This is extremely difficult,
if not impossible, in real-life organizational change; Cunningham (1993)
highlights this when he points out that variables are generally defined,
interrelated, ambiguous and hence an experimental
condition once introduced, changes the field setting even if that condition is
withdrawn.
Action
research therefore acknowledges the complexity of reality by allowing the
research to progress within a series
of cycles. This allows the research to mature while it is possible that the
problem, variables, hypotheses, and methods may undergo modification as interim
results are validated or invalidated (
Action
research acknowledges the reality of a complex relationship between cause and
effect by having the element of “reflection” in each action research cycle to
reflect on what emerged in a specific cycle, which then stimulates the
“planning” element of the next cycle.
3.3.4 External
validity
External
validity refers to the degree to which the findings may be generalised when
extended to other actions and settings (
The
external validity of this exploratory research, which is based on a central,
primary case study, is inevitably lower than would have been the case if a
large number of in-depth case studies on management of the operations of the
virtual class and its implementation within conventional tertiary education in
There are
possibilities of generalising the primary case study of implementing the
virtual class in a conventional tertiary educational institute in New Zealand
to other conventional tertiary educational institutes (universities,
polytechnics and colleges of education) in New Zealand, that is to say to
approximately 40 tertiary education institutes which can be defined as conventional according to the definition
given in Chapter one. This possibility is based on a number of factors
described below.
The overall
organisational structure and focus of the polytechnics are essentially the same
since the specific focus and structure
of Polytechnics in
The 25 polytechnics in
Furthermore,
in “A Guide to tertiary education in New Zealand” (1997, June) the Ministry of
Education states that "the distinctions between New Zealand universities
and polytechnics are diminishing” for although “...most polytechnics continue
to provide traditional trade and basic vocational courses, an increasing number
of professional courses offered at degree level is reducing the distinction
between the respective roles of polytechnics and universities.”
This guide
(Ministry of Education, 1997 June) furthermore indicates that
A central feature of the
reforms, as they affect tertiary institutions, has been the introduction of
common systems of governance, funding, accountability, and reporting. This
included a consistent and coherent funding system for all universities,
polytechnics, colleges of education, and wananga.
The
Association of Polytechnics in
"Polytechnic" is
the generic name for the tertiary education sector that comprises the 25
polytechnics and institutes of technology in
Polytechnics and institutes
of technology deliver technical, vocational and professional education. They
offer programmes at all levels - community interest courses, certificates,
diplomas, degrees and some post-graduate opportunities. Some also deliver the
first one or two years of selected university degree programmes.
Wellington
Polytechnic however does not offer community programmes, but degrees and
diplomas only.
Yet a
second generalisation may be possible: to apply the research findings from
conventional tertiary education in
This latter
potential generalisation is based on a few factors, the first of which is the
development of the
openness and internationalisation of tertiary education in
The first of these major
factors is the internationalisation of the
The goal of preparing school
leavers for this new environment is a challenge for the tertiary education
system. Nevertheless, the system is well-advanced down a path of
internationalisation. The internationalisation of the
This
internationalisation of tertiary education is also illustrated by its
participation in and hosting of international conferences. An example of this
participation occurred at the first world congress of colleges and polytechnics
that was held in May 1999 in
A second
factor contributing to the possible generalisation of research findings on
conventional tertiary education in
A third
factor contributing to the potential generalisation of research findings on
conventional tertiary education in
Finally,
interim research findings have been examined and commented on by the research
community after the presentation and publication of papers nationally and internationally (Uys,
1997a June, 1997b June, 1997a October, 1998, 1998 April, 1998 June, 1999, 1999
January). The feedback obtained suggests in a qualitative sense that there is a
degree of generalisability between the findings of this research and
conventional tertiary educational institutes elsewhere with a similar profile
to that of Wellington Polytechnic.
3.3.5 Reliability
Reliability
of research in the traditional scientific paradigm has to do with the degree of
comparability between outcomes when an event is repeated under similar
conditions.
In action
research that deals with complex real-life organizational change, this is
highly improbable if not impossible to achieve since a field setting changes irreversibly
once an experimental condition is introduced and cannot be restored by the
removal of the condition (Cunningham, 1993).
This means that as action research progresses through its cycles of
plan, act, observe and reflect, each cycle has different conditions not only
because of the “action” element of the previous cycle, but also because of the
open and dynamic nature of organisations that respond to other external and
internal prompts.
The
identified heuristics in regard to managing the implementation of the virtual
class infrastructure in conventional tertiary education as well as
characteristics of virtual class management are compared to similar projects in
Jasperse
(1992) and
3.4 Research
Execution
Lewin
(1946) said that action research can be used to simultaneously achieve advances
in theory and needed social change. This goal is pursued in this study by the
implementation of the virtual class infrastructure within Wellington
Polytechnic, of which the Wellington Polytechnic On-line Campus (1998, June)
formed the centrepiece. At the same time the theoretical aspects of management
within the virtual class are being explored.
The
specific type of action research used in this study would be termed “diagnostic
action research” since management within conventional tertiary education in
The
leadership and sometimes singular actions of the author in introducing this
change within Wellington Polytechnic have also aligned this study more with
“diagnostic action research” than with “participant action research” – the
former being strongly advocated for use in the educational sphere (Kemmis and McTaggart, 1988; Zuber-
Skerrit, 1992; Elliot, 1991). The author was the project manager for
implementing the virtual class infrastructure at Wellington Polytechnic during
the research period. The research analysis and synthesis presented in this
study is the independent work of the author. Seashore (1976) claims that within
the action researcher’s role in organizational life advocacy is inevitable since the action
researcher’s services are often sought precisely because of the trust that the
client or sponsor places in what the action researcher will advocate and how
single-mindedly that we be implemented.
However,
this does not imply that this research was done in isolation. Members of the
HYDI team (see Chapter four) that
worked with the author to develop networked education at Wellington Polytechnic
were involved in each of the action research elements of planning, acting,
observing and reflecting. This related more to the operational matters of the
HYDI project than to the research analysis and decisions, which were
predominantly that of the writer. The collaborative reflecting of the team was
mostly done on an informal basis although some formal evaluation sessions were
held (Appendix 16). The team used electronic mail extensively and also had
regular team meetings (often weekly or fortnightly) to discuss progress and
plan further action.
The
research started in July 1995 and was carried out over a three-and-a-half-year
period. The following cycles were analysed.
Cycle 1 - Towards the virtual class
July 1995 - December 1995
Cycle one represents the first steps towards implementing the virtual
class infrastructure at Wellington Polytechnic.
The overall objective for this action research cycle was to manage the
implementation of the virtual class infrastructure so that the feasibility of
the vision of networked education at Wellington Polytechnic could be tested.
It was the start at Wellington Polytechnic of the hypermedia (HYDI)
project during which the Wellington Polytechnic Website was developed as a
pilot project. Cycle one is described in Chapter four.
Cycle 2 – First networked course
January - December 1996
The overall objective for this action research cycle was to manage the
implementation of the virtual class infrastructure at Wellington Polytechnic
from the preliminary pilot stage to the infrastructure required by the
institute to offer networked education.
In cycle 2 the Wellington Polytechnic On-line campus was created and the
first networked course offered as a free sampler course. The hypermedia project
became an established but still experimental project after the completion of
the pilot project in 1995. Cycle 2 is described in Chapter 5.
Cycle 3 - First commercial networked courses
January 1997 - December 1997
The overall objective for this action research cycle was to manage the
implementation of the virtual class infrastructure at Wellington Polytechnic to
the stage where networked education could be offered commercially.
The first commercial networked courses were developed and the hypermedia
(called HYDI) project became the HYDI Educational New Media Centre. A few
students did participate in one of the commercial networked courses in an
experimental way when it was offered as an alternative to the traditional
on-campus version. Roles and responsibilities in the centre became more
formalised and the virtual class infrastructure became part of the
organisational processes of the Wellington Polytechnic in a non-experimental
albeit small way. Cycle 3 is described
in Chapter 6.
Cycle 4 - Networked education in operation
January - December 1998
In this final action research cycle the overall objective was to assess
the effectiveness of the virtual class infrastructure and to extend this
virtual class, where necessary, to support commercial networked education.
Networked education went into operation as students enrolled for the
courses. Additional commercial networked courses were also developed in other
academic areas. Cycle 4 is described in Chapter 7.
Figure 3.1 Action
research process